Muslims and Ontario’s Child Welfare System: Preliminary Findings

This study examines Muslim children’s, youth’s, and families’ experiences with Ontario’s Children’s Aid Societies (CASs) using qualitative and quantitative research methods. Muslim children’s and youth’s involvements with Ontario’s CASs and with the child welfare system in Canada more broadly is understudied; the only full-length publicly available study is Bibi Baksh’s dissertation, Adrift in Uncharted Waters: A Case Study of a Muslim Family Involved with Child Protection Services in Ontario.

We began this research to not only fill a gap in the literature but also address the concerns Muslim community organizations raised about Muslim children’s, youth’s, and families’ involvements with Ontario’s child welfare system. Community members repeatedly raised concerns about overrepresentation, Muslim families being subjected to biases or unfairly targeted due to Ontario’s Eligibility Spectrum, and misunderstandings about the Muslim religion. We continue to investigate if Muslim children, youth, and families experience the child welfare system differently and examine what factors may contribute to those experiences.

Data and Methods

This first dataset presents some of the information gathered from the Ontario government’s records through Freedom of Information requests. Requests included the number of individual Muslim children referred, investigated, and taken into out of home care by non-Indigenous member CASs in Ontario. Requests also asked for data on the countries of origin of Muslim children and youth who are referred to and investigated by Ontario’s CASs. The data on Muslim children became available in June 2019, and as a result, data analysis begins from 2020, the first full year that data was available.[1]

Preliminary Quantitative Data from Freedom of Information Requests

The data in Figure 1 shows the number of children and youth referred to and investigated by non-Indigenous member CASs while Figure 2 shows the number of Muslim children referred to and investigated by non-Indigenous member CASs. These two datasets demonstrate that Muslim children and youth were screened in for investigation at higher proportions than the overall population of Ontario’s children and youth between 2020-2024.

A referral occurs when a CAS receives a report or information that a child may be in need of protection. Schools and police make up the largest proportion of sources of referrals in Ontario (Fallon et. al. 29). It is at this stage that the referent is asked about the referred family’s religion. The child’s religion may not be known to the referent, and providing this information is voluntary. If the referent does not provide this information, the child protection worker should request this information from the child and/or caregivers (“Ontario Child Protection Standards” 26).

Not all referrals result in investigations. Once a referral is made, referral dispositions include opening an investigation for child protection or a child welfare service, facilitating community links and supports, providing the family with information only, or no contact with the family (“Ontario Child Protection Standards” 24). The child protection worker uses the Eligibility Spectrum as well as considers the context of the child and family in relation to the incident that occurred, such as the child’s vulnerability, protective factors, safety threats and risk, and previous involvement with child welfare to determine the referral disposition and if an investigation is the appropriate response (“Ontario Child Protection Standards” 28-29).

Figure 1 illustrates that, out of all the children and youth in Ontario referred to non-Indigenous member CASs from 2020 to 2024, 76 to 80% were screened in for investigation. Figure 2 demonstrates that 88 to 94% of referrals involving Muslim children and youth were screened in for investigation in the same time period. The reasons for this substantial difference are unclear and require further investigation. It is possible that some Muslim children and youth are not identified as Muslim at the point of intake but are identified as Muslim more frequently at the point of investigation, and therefore, the recorded number of Muslim children and youth referred is lower than the actual number referred.[2] The higher proportion of investigations, however, can also indicate that referrals of Muslim children are more likely to be screened in for investigation and perhaps more likely to meet investigative thresholds. It is not possible, yet, to conclude the reasons for the higher proportion of Muslim children and youth being screened in for investigation and further research is required.

Referrals and investigations for Muslim children increased annually from 2020 to 2023, but in 2024, referrals only increased slightly and investigations decreased (Figure 2). Referrals and investigations for children/youth overall in Ontario, however, had significantly smaller increases; referrals decreased from 2021 to 2022 and investigations decreased from 2020-2022. In 2024, however, there was a much higher increase in referrals and investigations for children/youth overall in Ontario (Figure 1).

Years	Referrals for Muslims	Referrals Overall
2020-2021	11.7% increase	0.7% increase
2021-2022	4.5% increase	0.5% decrease
2022-2023	8.4% increase	4% increase
2023-2024	1.09% increase	8.8% increase

Years	Investigations of Muslims	Investigations Overall
2020-2021	10% increase	1.05% decrease
2021-2022	0.8% increase	3.4% decrease
2022-2023	11% increase	5.7% increase
2023-2024	0.4% decrease	6.8% increase

As other research suggests, the slow increase and decrease in referrals for the overall population between 2020 and 2022 may be attributed to COVID-19 measures, including school closures, which likely resulted in underreporting (Baron, Goldstein, and Wallace 2; Gonzalez et. al 393). For Muslim children, however, there was a significant annual increase in referrals during the COVID-19 year of 2020 to 2021. The reason for the vast difference in annual increases for referrals and investigations of Muslim children and youth compared to the overall population is currently unclear. Further research into the sources of referrals may provide insight into why Muslim children and youth experienced significant increases in referrals from 2020 to 2021 and 2022 to 2023.

Representation of Muslims

Though Muslim children and youth constitute 10.15% of the children and youth in Ontario based on the 2021 census (ages 0-19), between 2020 and 2024, on average, Muslim children and youth comprised an average of 6.8% of those referred to CASs and 5.8% of those screened in for investigation (Figure 3). In these instances, Muslim children and youth are underrepresented in referrals and investigations. For a comparator, Black children make up 7% of the child population in Ontario from ages 0-15 but represent 13.9% of investigations, while white children make up 60.3% of the child population in Ontario but represent 55.4% of investigations (Bonnie and Facey 7). In these cases, Black children are overrepresented in CAS investigations while white children are underrepresented. This preliminary data suggests that there is not a systemic overrepresentation of Muslim children and youth in CAS referrals and investigations when considering the total number of Muslim children and youth in all of Ontario.

It should be noted, however, the provincial-level data can obscure regional variations. This current analysis is based on the number of Muslim children and youth involved with CASs in Ontario more broadly and does not provide a picture of how Muslims are represented in specific regions of Ontario where they account for a larger proportion of the population, such as Ottawa, London, Windsor, and the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area. As a result, this study cannot yet draw conclusions about the proportion of Muslim children and youth involved with CASs in regions where Muslims constitute larger proportions of the population. It is also likely that there is underreporting of religious identity at the point of intake and investigation resulting in lower recorded numbers of Muslim referrals and investigations.

While referrals and investigations of Muslim children and youth saw significant annual percentage increases compared to the overall population from 2020 to 2023, and though the proportion of Muslim referrals and investigation increased annually between 2020 and 2023, the increase does not appear significant when examining the proportion of children and youth overall who are Muslim (Figure 3). The proportion of Muslim children referred and investigated actually decreased in 2024. Furthermore, because the only data available to measure the number of Muslim children and youth in Ontario is the 2021 census data, it is not possible to assess if any increases are proportionate to the population growth of Muslim children and youth in Ontario.

The number of Muslim children and youth in out of home care in Ontario is declining in proportion to Muslim referrals and investigations, with the exception of 2023 to 2024, where the proportion remained stable for referrals and increased slightly for investigations (Figure 4). Children and youth are placed in out of home care when they cannot safely remain with their family or guardians. CASs should prioritize kinship placements or placements with someone with whom the child or youth already has a relationship. Out of home care includes placements in foster care, group homes, and voluntary youth services agreements from youth aged 16 or 17. 97% of investigations result in children and youth remaining in the home with their families and, overall, the number of children and youth in out of home care in Ontario is declining (Fallon et al. 31).

Countries of Origin

From 2020 to 2024, after Canada and unknown country of origin, the most common countries of origin for Muslim children and youth referred and investigated are Syria and Pakistan (Figure 5 and 6). After 2021, there was also a significant increase in referrals and investigations of Muslim children and youth whose country of origin is Afghanistan (based on information that has not been redacted) (Figure 5 and 6). Newcomer families face a number of obstacles that may make them more vulnerable to child maltreatment-related investigations such as having few social supports, language barriers, and difficulty obtaining employment and housing (Houston et al. 118-119). The higher number of Muslim children and youth involved with CASs whose country of origin is Syria is likely related to the significant number of Syrians who migrated to Canada post-2015, many of whom identify as Muslim. The higher number of Muslim children and youth whose country of origin is Pakistan is somewhat expected given that the largest proportion of newcomer Muslims in Canada come from Pakistan (“A Snapshot of the Muslim Population”). There is a significant increase in children and youth involved with CAS whose country of origin is Pakistan between 2022 and 2024; the reason for this increase is currently unknown. The significant increase in children and youth whose country of origin is Afghanistan from 2022 to 2024 is likely related to the substantial increase in newcomers from Afghanistan to Canada since 2021. We have not, however, had significant participation in our qualitative study from Arab and South/Central Asian communities about their experiences with Ontario’s CASs.

We are seeking further representation from South/Central Asian and Arab communities in our qualitative study and ask Muslim families from these communities who have been involved with Ontario’s CASs to reach out to us to share their stories.

This preliminary quantitative analysis demonstrates initial findings of Muslim children’s and youth’s involvements with Ontario’s CASs and should be interpreted cautiously. Though Muslim children and youth appear underrepresented in referrals and investigations, obtaining regional-level data, specifically in areas where there are substantial Muslim populations, would provide a more precise depiction of how Muslims are represented in the child welfare system in Ontario.

The increasing representation of Muslims in the child welfare system, with the exception of investigations in 2024, raises important questions about referral sources, primary concerns, referral dispositions, investigative approaches and substantiation, and referrals to ongoing services. The clear differences in referral and investigation patterns of Muslim children and youth during COVID-19 compared to the overall population also requires further investigation. Furthermore, the likelihood that many children and youth are not identified as Muslim at intake and investigation should also be explored further. Future analyses, too, will include qualitative research that will hopefully provide a richer depiction of Muslims’ experiences with Ontario’s child welfare system.

We are truly grateful to those who have shared their stories with us. Thank you. We still welcome and encourage those who have personal or professional experiences with Ontario’s CASs and who are interested in sharing their experiences in a formal interview to reach out to us.

This piece is researched and written by Sharifa Patel, and is part of a larger project, Uncovering Muslims’ Experiences with Ontario’s CASs, that examines how Muslim families and children experience Ontario’s child welfare system. Sharifa Patel can be reached at sharifa.patel@utoronto.ca

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Works Cited

Baksh, Bibi. Adrift Uncharted Waters: A Case Study of a Muslim Family Involved with Child Protection Services in Ontario. 2022. Wilfrid Laurier University, PhD Dissertations. Scholars Commons @ Laurier. https://scholars.wlu.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3606&context=etd

Bonnie, N. & Facey, K., with support from King, B., Fallon, B., Joh-Carnella, N., Edwards, T., Kagan-Cassidy, M., Black, T., Patrick-Drakes, V., & Anucha, C. Understanding the Over-Representation of Black Children in Ontario Child Welfare Services (Ontario Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect-2018). 2022. Toronto, ON: Child Welfare Research Portal. https://www.oacas.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Black-Children-in-Care-OIS-Report-2022-Final.pdf

E. Jason Baron, Ezra G. Goldstein, Cullen T. Wallace. “Suffering in Silence: How COVID-19 School Closures Inhibit the Reporting of Child Maltreatment.” Journal of Public Economics, vol. 190, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2020.104258.

Fallon, B., Black, T., Lefebvre, R., Trocmé, N., Hélie, S., Crowe, A., Miller, M., Budau, K., Houston, E., King, B., Esposito, T., Fluke, J., Collin-Vézina, D., Parada, H., Provençal, J., Chhabra, N., Sawh, P., Chan, P., Chowdhury, R., Wilson, L. Ontario Incidence Study of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect-2023 (OIS-2023). 2025. Toronto, ON: Child Welfare Research Portal. https://www.oacas.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/Black-Children-in-Care-OIS-Report-2022-Final.pdf

Gonzalez, Andrea, Tracie O Afifi, Lil Tonmry. “Completing the Picture: A Proposed Framework for Child Maltreatment Surveillance and Research in Canada.” Health Promotion and Chronic Disease Prevention in Canada: Research, Policy and Practice, vol. 41, no. 11, 2021, pp. 392-397. doi:10.24095/hpcdp.41.11.07

Houston, Emmaline, Anika Ganness, Tara Black, and Barbara Fallon. “Examining Child Maltreatment-Related Investigations of Children from Newcomer and non-Newcomer Households in Ontario, Canada.” International Journal of Child and Adolescent Resilience, vol. 8, no. 1, 2021, pp. 110-123. https://doi.org/10.7202/1082070ar.

“Ontario Child Protection Standards.” 2016. Ministry of Children and Youth Service. https://www.ontario.ca/document/ontario-child-protection-standards-2016

Ontario. FOI Requestion: Information Related to Muslim Children’s Involvement with the Ontario’s Children’s Aid Societies 2019-2024. Ministry of Children and Youth Services. 27 Jun 2024.

Ontario. FOI Request: Information related to Muslim Children’s Involvement with the Ontario’s Children’s Aid Societies 2024-2025. Ministry of Children and Youth Services. 02 Feb 2026.

Ontario. FOI Requestion: Information Related to the Number of Individual Children and Youth Involved with Ontario’s Children’s Aid Societies 2019-2023. Ministry of Children and Youth Services. 12 Jun 2024.

“A Snapshot of the Muslim Population in Canada.” 2025.  Statistics Canada.

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[1] According to the documents shared by the Ministry of Children, Community and Social Services, the number for individual children referred, investigated, and taken into out of home care is calculated in the following way: “Numbers represent the number of distinct children/youth. A child/youth with multiple occurrences (e.g., they are involved in 2 or more referrals) within 1 year, will only be counted once. A child/youth with multiple occurrences spread across multiple years (e.g., 1 or more referrals in each of 2 or more years) will be counted once in each year. A child/youth with more than one occurrence type in a year (e.g., a referral that leads to an investigation) will be counted once for each occurrence type in that year” Ontario, FOI Request: Information Related to Muslim Children’s Involvement with the Ontario’s Children’s Aid Societies 2019-2024).

[2] In the data I received for the countries of origin of Muslim children referred to and investigated by Ontario’s CASs, for example, some of the numbers for investigated children/youth are higher than the numbers for those referred in the same year. This is likely a result of the country of origin being unknown at the time of intake.